Vygotskys Theory of Psychological Development

Vygotskys Theory of Psychological DevelopmentLev Semenovich Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896, the same year with Piaget. He attended Moscow University and graduated with a degree of law in 1917 just before the start of Russian Revolution (Driscoll, 2005). aft(prenominal) a while the Russian revolution where the Marxism replaced, Vygotsky worked in psychology. The new philosophy of the Marxist stressed complaisantism and collectivism in society. So his views delineated Marxist ideas of cordial change to language and evolution. Vygotsky in any case studied various subjects in school such as philosophy, psychology, belles-lettres and art. He worked as a teacher at a teacher training institution where he founded a psychology laboratory. His main accession into psychology started with the second Psychoneurological congress in 1924. Vygotsky presented a paper and criticized Pavlovs reflexology guess. After his brilliant presentation consummation, Konstantin Kornilov who is th e director of Psychological Institute of Moscow University invited Vygotsky for a position in university (Gredler, 2005). His dissertation, in 1925,The Psychology of Art, was accepted for the Ph.D. degree. Vygotsky completed manuscripts, articles, and books and emended a journal until his death in 1934 beca implement of tuberculosis. His major writings ar about the fiber of cultural signs and symbols in the victimization of attention, pilferion, language, memory and cogitate ( Gredler, 2005). Most of his writings were published after his death. His inventions of cultural historical growth of cognitive instruction remained incomplete at his death. After his death few basic judgments fixed with his studies were added his possible action.Basic Principles of Vygotskys Sociocultural TheoryTo represent Vygotskys theory, to work out at political environment of his time may be helpful. In 1917, after the Russian revolution, Marxism penetrated all society and emphasized compan ionableism. Sharing amid people and co-operating was supported, and the winner of any individual was thought as the success of the culture. Marxism likewise took place on history, believing that every culture could be understood however by examination of the ideas and events that had graded it (Vasta,R., Haith, M.M., Miller,S.A., 1995, as cited in Riddle, 1999).Vygotsky also influenced Marxist theory of loving change to language and maturation (Schunk, 2008). His theory covered these elements in term of human being outgrowth that has been called as a sociocultural surface. consort to Vygotsky, the ones development is a pass on of his own culture and development refers kind development including thought, language and think process. These genial engages were believed to develop through with(predicate) kind interactions with people and so represented the sh atomic number 18d acquaintance of the culture.Vygotksys theory is also a form of dialectic constituteivist theo ry that emphasizes the social environment as a facilitator of development and scholarship. His sociocultural theory emphasizes interaction amid people and their environment. For him, the processes of the human cognitive development be the part of the process of historical development (Schunk, 2008). Briefly, Vygotskys theory is establish on the idea that learnedness begins with social interaction and because friendship is constructed on an individual basis.Vygotskys theory has three basic assumptions. These assumptions be i) nature of human intelligence, ii) biological and sociohistorical lines of mental development and iii) nature of mental processes (Driscoll, 2005 Gredler, 2005). Vygotsky thought about the differences between animal and human behavior in terms of psychological development and thought that the behavior of modern cultured adult is the result of devil different process of mental development. Firstly, in the human beings, biological factors look across th e early months of life and physical growth is responsible for perception and frank memory, and involuntary attention. The emergence of these mental run lows is referred to as ancient development. And sociocultural development is responsible for development of complex mental functions (Gredler, 2005).Secondly, Vygotsky also believed that human mental abilities develop through interaction with the world. Vygotsky investigated how these social interactions turns in to psychological principles In order to explain this phenomenon Vygotsky mention about the terms signalization and signification. According to Vygotskys perspective, a fry does non touch a hot chain after putting his hand and feeling pain is an causa of signalization (Gredler, 2005). Also, signification process that is a process of assigning meaning to an rest little stimulus differ human behavior from new(prenominal) animals. These processes argon transforming from primitive humans to humans who persona signs sym bols to change own mental functions. So, Vygotsky believed that psychological development holds the transformation of primitive mental functions to higher(prenominal) mental forms (Gredler, 2005).Vygotsky express that development does not proceed toward socialization it is the conversion of social dealing into mental functions (as cited in Driscoll, 2005). The social environment influences cognition through its putzs such as cultural objects, language and social institutions (Schunk, 2005). According to Vygotsky, humans do tools that develop from the surrounding culture such as spoken parley and writing, to interfere their social environments. So, culture gives opportunities the baberen with the meanings to, what to think and how to think. Initially children develop these tools to make reason of their worlds as social functions, styles to communicate needs. The tools, cultural signs and symbols, mountain be technological or psychological. Cognitive change results from us ing these tools in social interactions and internalizing and mentally transforming these interactions (Schunk, 2005).Vygotsky also gave importance the emergence of name and address in terms of distinguishing humans from other animals. In Vygotksys view, language was the most important psychological tool that influences childrens cognitive development. By acquiring bashledge a child is supported the means to think in new ways and conveys a new cognitive tool for making sense of the world. For Vygotsky, the analysis of cerebration and bringing was a major job for psychology, and the central problem was the affinity of thought to word (Gredler, 2005). He identified three different stages in childrens use of language. At first, language is primarily used for communication. It refers social mother tongue. For Vygotsky, speech begins to develop independent of thought. And then, thinking be drives verbal and children begin to use egoist or snobby speech to guide their own thinkin g. Both Piaget and Vygotsky as trustworthyed that as in problem answer situations pre-school children talking to themselves. While Piaget referred the self-importance order behavior as swellhead speech, Vygotsky labeled to it as a private speech. He claimed that private speech originated in the childrens interaction with other people and with these interactions they start to use their pargonnts instructional comments to regulate their own behavior. secret speech such as talking aloud or talk while performing a task refers speech for oneself. Researches indicated that children tend to adjoin the amount of self-talk when facing more challenging tasks (Gredler, 2005). Children start using private speech to organize (plan, direct, or evaluate) their behaviors. The use of private speech peaks duringpreschool eld and then decreases. For Vygotsky, this decrease with private speech turns first into inner speech and then into verbal thinking. At last stage of language development, eg ocentric speech becomes inner speech and children start to use inner speech to guide their thinking and actions. The inner speech is speech for oneself, not for communication without words (Gredler, 2005).This transition of speech from social to self- enjoin to internalized reflects the Vygotskys sentiment of development as a process of internalization. With the internalization of private speech intellectual development that is the path of all higher mental functions occurs. It was describe by Vygotsky in his law of the development of higher mental functions. He declargond law of the development of higher mental functionsEvery function in the childs cultural development appears twice first, on the social take aim, and later, on the individual take aim first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). (Vygotsky, 1978 as cited in Gredler, 2005).Acording to Vygotskys view, development of complex mental functions involves two processes know of the external means of cultural development and thinking (language, counting, writing) and schooling to use symbols to master and regulate ones own behavior. Briefly, every higher mental function was external or social before it became an internal mental function.And also Karpov and Haywood stated thatAll higher mental processes are mediated by such psychological tools as language, signs and symbols. Adults teach these tools to children in the course of their control stick activity. After children internalize these tools they function as mediators of the childrens more advanced psychological processes (Karpov Haywood, 1989, as cited in Schunk, 2008).Mediation is the key mechanism in learning and development from Vygotskys perspective. When mediation becomes increasingly internal and symbolic higher mental functions are created. Vygotsky stated that mediation referred that interposing tools between people and their environment, to modify it and obtain benefits (Schunk, 2005). A nd also mediators such as tools and language help to people to make up to their environment.From Vygotskys point of view, higher mental functions include categorical perception, logical memory, abstract thought and voluntary attention (as cited in Gredler, 1992). These are the products of the sociohistorical development. Vygotsky distinguished the higher mental functions from the primitive mental functions. Primitive mental functions are biological in nature and higher mental functions are the part of the social and cultural heritage of child move from social plane to psychological plane, from interpersonal to intrapersonal, from socially regulated to self regulated, from assisted performance to unsupported performance and from social control to self control (Gredler, 2005).Zone of proximal DevelopmentZone of proximal development (ZPD) is a key concept for Vygotskys theory. ZPD defined from Vygotsky as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independen t problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers( Schunk, 2008 Driscoll, 2005). Briefly ZPD refers the gap between what children hind end do individually and what they can do with assistance from more erudite person. Also Bruner (1984) stated that ZPD reflects activity in which those who have more knowledgeable or are more clevernessed share that knowledge or skill to follow up a task with who know less. Vygotsky claimed that learning occurs in this zone (Riddle, 1999).In ZPD teachers and students work together on a task. With the help of more knowledgeable partner the child can complete a task when he cannot do unassisted. Working in ZPD requires a good deal of point participation. Learners bring their own understanding to social interaction environment and construct meaning by integrating those understanding with their experiences in the context (Schunk, 2000). trai n of performances development shows a change from self regulation to social regulation. gradually require to the assistance decreases and strength for self regulation increases. The progress in ZDP is gradual from assisted performance to unassisted and self regulated performance (Moll, 1990).The process in the ZDP described as a stage standard which includes four stages which focuses on the relationship between social control and self control.In stage 1 learner has very limited capacity to complete task and parent, teacher or more capable peers spin directions and modeling. Learner response is acquiescent and imitative. Learner gradually understands how related the move of an activity to one another. Understanding develops with conversation (Moll, 1990).In stage 2, there is a change of mental activity from intermental to intramental. Learners start to handle task without assistance. and, performance is not fully developed. In stage 2, self directed speech reflects development of profound significance. Key mechanism of self directed speech is self regulation (Moll, 1990)In stage 3, assistance does not require and assistance is no longer need. Performance is already developed. job have been internalized and automatized. Vygotsky described this stage as fruits of development (Moll, 1990).And finally in stage 4, it can be thought that learning is lifelong. However, although a concept can be accomplished by an adult, another concept cannot be accomplished (Moll, 1990).For Vygotsky, teacher direct students while hold up process in ZPD and try to support assistance about how the learner can get through his goal even without the assistance. A Vygotskian teachers aim is creating self-regulated learners. In Vygotskys theory, role of teachers is to provide the guidance required for learners to bridge the distance between their current skill level and a wanted skill level.Educational ApplicationsThere are many educational applications of Vygotskys theory. Instr uctional scaffolding, reciprocal training, peer collaboration and apprenticeship are some of these applications (Schunk, 2008).Instructional ScaffoldingAlthough scaffolding is not a Vygotskian term, in order to it fit nicely in the ZPD, it added by Wood, Bruner and Ross in the theory (Schunk, 2008). Instructional scaffolding is also the process of controlling task elements that are beyond learners capabilities (Schunk, 2008). It is the condition of sufficient support to promote learning. Supports can include some resources, a compelling task, templates and guides and guidance on the development of cognitive and social skills. In scaffolding process, the instructor becomes a supportive tool for the student in the zone of proximal development. The characteristics of an ideal teacher are those of a scaffold provide support, function as a tool, lam the range of the learner, permit attainment of task otherwise possible, use selectively only as needed (Schunk, 2008 Driscoll, 2005). In short, instructor creates a ZPD and provides the scaffolding for students to be successful (Moll, 2001 as cited Schunk, 2008). Moreover, for scaffolding process prior knowledge have an important role for Vygotskain teacher. Because, teacher need to give less assistance if there is more prior knowledgeable person.Reciprocal teaching methodReciprocal teaching is an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. Teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue (Schunk, 2008). The purpose of reciprocal teaching is to facilitate a assembly effort between teacher and students in the task of bringing meaning to the text. The dialogue is structured by the use of summarizing, question generating, clarifying and predicting (Driscoll, 2005 Schunk, 2008).Peer collaborationPeer collaboration is the caprice of collective activity. When peers come together to accomplish a task acco mmodatively, this social interaction can lead learning. If each student has assigned the responsibility, researches showed that cooperative work is most effective (Schunk, 2008).ApprenticeshipApprenticeship is another application of Vygotskys theory. The purpose of cognitive apprenticeship is to help learners to learn the cognitive processes that experts use to overcome complex tasks through guided experience. While operating in ZPD novices and experts works closely in joint work related activities. For instance, student teachers work with cooperating teachers in schools. It is an example of apprenticeship. Apprenticeship is also a form of dialectical constructivism that depends on social interaction (Schunk, 2008).Critics about the TheoryVygotksky seems social interaction as only way of learning. According to Vygotsky all learning is a social process begins as social activities by interacting with other people and people internalize these processes and can use them independently. B ut researcher states that as it is known that cultures are little and needed to be thought while explaining learning it is not only constrained social environment (Schunk, 2008). And it is showed that children learn certain concepts which do not depend on social environment (Geary, as cited in Schunk, 2008). However I agree with Vygotsky in terms of explaning learning from social context to individual context. In my opinion, Vygotskys theory is based on the idea that learning begins with social interaction with other people or environment and then knowledge is constructed individually.Implications of Vygotskys theory are considered by researchers as not see (Wertsch, as cited in Driscoll, 2005). It is thought that there is no answer to the questions how it is explained the differences between the ZDP of children who have similar history and how it is account for the changing relation between subject and child development. I think the effect of the culture and social environment on learning is important. The culture and social environment imprint how children can learn. And also we construct meanings and common shared knowledge of a culture. So we affect and are affected from our culture and history. And our leanings can come from this social environment. But it has still not clear enough to understand learning with only sociocultural theory, and how the teaching should be.ConclusionAlthough new learning approaches appeared in education, since the earlier in the 20th century Vygotkss sociocultural theory has lost influence on learning. Because Vygotksys theory contributed to development of constructivism with Piaget, Dewey, and Glaserfields theories. Many teachers are still using application of Vygotskys theory such as group works, class discussion or guided discovery consciously or unconsciously. And as Vygotksy claimed children begin to learn in social environment in classrooms with social activities by interacting with other people such as peers or teache rs and they internalize these processes and can use them independently. Even though researches showed that children learn certain concepts which do not depend on social environment, the sociocultural approach certainly could not explain all human learning alone. It can explain learning particularly in terms of a social environment. Therefore it is termed as dialectical constructivist theory.To sum up, although there are some criticisms to Vygotksys sociocultural theory, it is clear that the study of human development has benefited from this theory from ordinal century to nowadays. It is clear that although Vygotksys theory remained in complete because of his early death, researchers could not ignore his theorys importance for learning and they developed his theory as we know today.